Jumamosi, 17 Februari 2018

kazi ya figo

KAZI YA FIGO
FIGO NI  miongoni mwa viungo muhimu vya mwili wa binadamu. Kukosa kufanya kwake kazi kunaweza kusababisha magonjwa mazito na hata mauti. Figo limejengwa kwa viungo vingi na kazi zake ni nyingi.
Kazi zake mbili muhimu ni: kutoa uchafu unaoathiri mwili na wenye sumu na kuweko usawa wa maji (fluids), madini and kemikali.

Umbo la figo/structure

Figo hutoa mkojo kwa kutoa uchafu wenye sumu na maji zaidi kutoka mwilini. Mkojo unaotengenezwa katika figo hupitia kwenye mrija uitwao” ureta, na huteremka hadi kwenye kibofu (bladder) na mwisho hutoka kupitia mrija wa urethra.
  • Watu wengi (waume kwa wake) wana figo mbili.
  • Figo ziko sehemu ya juu na nyuma ya tumbo, pande zote za uti wa mgongo (tazama mchoro) zinakingwa zisiathiriwe na mbavu za chini.
  • Figo huwa ndani kabisa mwa tumbo kwa kawaida mtu hawezi kuzihisi.
  • Figo ni viungo jozi ya umbo la aragwe lenye urefu wa sentimita 10, upande wa sentimita 6 na wembamba wa sentimita 4. Uzito wake ni kati ya gramu 150 – 170.
  • Mkojo unaotengenezwa kwenye figo huteremka hadi kwenye kibofu kupitia kwenye ureta.
  • Ureta ina urefu wa karibu sentimita 25 umbo la mrija uliotengenezwa kwa misuli ya kipekee.
Muundo na kazi ya figo ni sawa katika sehemu ya viungo vya kiume na kike.
Kidney and its Function in swahili Language
  • Kibofu ni kiungo chenye mwanya kilichoundwa kutokana na misuli inayolala.Kibofu kipo chini na mbele ya tumbo na ni stoo ya mkojo kwa muda. Chini na ndani mwa tumbo. Huwa kama mbwawa la mkojo.
  • Kibofu cha mtu mzima huweza kubeba 400 – 500 mililita ya mkojo na iwapo kimejaa karibu pomoni, mtu, hujisikia kwenda kukojoa.
  • Mkojo kwenye kibofu hutolewa kupitia urethra wakati wa kukojoa. Kwa wanawake, urethra yao ni fupi ilihali ni ndefu kwa wanaume.

Kwa nini figo ni muhimu kwa mwili?

  • Sisi hula vyakula vingi na tofauti kila siku.
  • Kiwango cha maji, chumvi na tindi kali (acids) katika miili yetu hutofautiana.
  • Ile hali inayoendelea ya kubadilisha chakula ili kilete nguvu hutoa vitu/sumu mwilini.
  • Vitu hivi husababisha utofauti wa kiwango c tindi kali (acids) mwilini. Huu mkusanyi isiyohitajika huweza kuhatarisha maisha.
  • Figo hubeba kazi muhimu sana ya kusafish vyenye sumu, tindi kali(acid) ya sumu na vi materials) hufanya hivyo wakati huo huo i kuhakikisha usawa wa kiwango cha maji, el cha tindi kali (acid base).

Kazi za figo ni zipi?

Kazimuhimu ya figo ni kutengeneza mkojo na huondoa vitu visivyofaa, chumvi chumvi ya ziad mwilini.
Kazi muhimu za figo zimeelezwa hapa chini.
1. Kutoa uchafuKusafisha damu kwa kutoa uchafu ni kazi muhimu sana ya figo. Vyakula tunavyokula huwa na protini. Protini ni muhimu kwa kukua na kurekebisha mwili. Lakini jinsi protini invyotumika na mwili hutoa uchafu. Mkusanyiko wa uchafu huu ni kama sumu kwenye mwili. Figo huchuja damu na uchafu hatari (wa sumu) na hutolewa katika mkojo.
Creatinine na urea ni aina mbili muhimu ya uchafu ambao kiwango chake katika mwili wa binadamu huweza kupimika.Kiwango chake katika damu huonyesha jinsi figo zinavyofanya kazi Iwapo figo zote mbili
zimeshindwa, kiwango cha creatine na urea kitakuwa juu katika uchunguzi wa damu.

2. Kutoa maji(fluid) mengi

Kazi ya pili muhimu ya figo ni kulinganisha fluid kwa kutoa maji zaidi kama mkojo na kubakiza kiwango muhimu cha maji katika mwili. Kwa hivyo figo huweka kiwango kamili cha maji yanayohitajika katika mwili.
Figo zinaposhindwa, hushindwa kutoa maji zaidi kama mkojo. Maji mengi mwilini huchangia kuvimba kwa mwili.

3. Kusawazisha madini na kemikali

Figo hufanya kazi nyingine muhimu ya kusawazisha madini na kemikali kama sodium, potassium, hydrogen, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium na bicarbonate na husawazisha kiwango kamili cha fluid kwenye mwili. Kubadilika kwa kiwango cha sodium uweza athiri fahamu ilhali kubadilika kwa kiwango cha potassium huweza kuwa na madhara makubwa kwa mapigo ya moyo na kufanya kazi kwa mishipa. Kuweka kiwango sawa cha calcium na phosphorus ni muhimu kwa afya ya mifupa na meno.

4. Kuchunga Shinikizo la damu

Figo hutoa hormoni mbalimbali (rennin, angiotensin, aldosterone , prostaglandin ….nk) na kusawazisha maji na chumvi kwenye mwili ambayo hufanya kazi muhimu kwa kulinda msukumo wa moyo. Usumbufu wa kutoa hormoni na kusawazisha chumvi na maji kwa mgonjwa mwenye ugonjwa wa figo uongeza msukumo wa damu kwenye moyo ( shinikizo la damu / high blood pressure).

5. Uzalishaji wa chembechembe za damu nyekundu

Erythropoietin inayotolewa kwenye figo hufanya kazi muhimu katika kutoa chembechembe za damu nyekundu (RBC).Figo likishindwa husababisha figo hilo kutoa erythropoietin kidogo ambayo baadaye husababisha kupungua kwa RBC na matokeo yake huwa hemoglobin kidogo (anemia).
Kwa sababu ya kutoa erythropoietin kidogo kwa wagonjwa ambao wana shida ya kushindwa kwa figo, hemoglobin haiwezi kuongezeka hata kama itaongezewa kwa madini ya chuma na vitamin.

6. Kuendeleza mifupa yenye afya

Figo hubadilisha vitamin D katika hali yake ya kutumika, ambayo n muhimu kwa kunyonya calcium kutoka kwenye chakula, kukua kwa mifupa na meno na kuweka mifupa yenye afya. Katika hali ya figo kushindwa kufanya kazi,na kwa sababu ya upungufu wa vitamin D kunafanya kukua kwa mifupa kunapunguzwa na kuwa hafifu. Kushindwa kukua inaweza kuwa ishara ya kwanza kwa watoto walio na shida ya kushindwa kwa figo.

Damu inasafishwa vipi na mkojo kutengenezwa?

Katika harakati ya kusafisha damu, figo husalia na vitu muhimu na kwa huchagua kutoa maji yaliyozidi zaidi, madini na uchafu wowote Ni muhimu tuelewe mbinu muhimu na ya kushangaza ya kutengeneza mkojo.
  • Je wajua? Kila dakika ml 1200 ya damu huingia katika figo zote kwa kusafishwa, ambayo ni asilimia 20% ya damu yote inayosukumwa na moyo. Kwa hiyo kwa siku lita1700 ya damu inasafishwa!
Kazi kuu ya figo ni kutoa uchafu na vitu hatari na maji yakupindukia kutengeneza mkojo.
  • Njia hii ya kusafisha mwili hutokea katika vitu vidogo vya kuchuja vinavyojulikana kama nephron.
  • Kila figo huwa na karibu na nephron million moja. Kila nephron imeundwa na glomerulus and tubules.
  • Glomeruli ni vichungi na mashimo madogo madogo sana yenye sifa ya kuchuja kwa kuchagua. Maji na vitu vidogo huwa rahisi kuchujwa. Lakini chembechembe kubwa za damu nyekundu, chembechembe za damu nyeupe, platelets, protini n.k haviwezi kupita katika mianya hii. Kwa hivyo katika mkojo wa watu wenye afya hakuna vitu vikubwa katika mkojo wao.
  • Hatua ya kwanza ya kutengeneza mkojo hufanyika katika glomeruli, ambapo 125 ml za mkojo hutolewa kwa dakika. Ni jambo la kushangaza kuwa kwa saa 24, lita 180 ya mkojo imetengenezwa! Haina uchafu pekee, madini na sumu lakini hata glucose na vitu vingine muhimu.
  • Figo hufanya kazi ya kunyonya kwa uerevu mkubwa mno. Kutokana na lita180 za maji ambayo huingia kwenye tubules asilimia 99% ya maji hunyonywa na asilimia 1% tu hutolewa kama mkojo.
  • Katika njia hii erevu vitu vyote muhimu na lita 178 ya maji yananyonywa na vijishipa na kati ya lita1-2 ya maji, vitu vichafu, madini zaidi na vitu vingine hatari hutolewa.
  • Mkojo uliotengenezwa kwenye figo huteremka kupitia ureta hadi kibofu cha mkojo (urinary bladder) na baadaye kutoka nje kupitia urethra.
    Je kunaweza kuwa na tofauti ya kipimo cha ujazo cha mkojo kwa mtu mwenye figo lenye afya?
  • Ndio. Kiwango cha kunywa maji na hali ya hewa (atmospheric
Kiwango kidogo sana au kingi sana cha mkojo kutengenezwa, huashiria kuwa figo yataka kuangaliwa na kuchunguzwa.
temperature) ni sababu kuu ambazo huamua kiwango cha mkojo kwa mtu mzima.
  • Iwapo kiwango cha maji yaliyonywewa ni kidogo,huwa kidogo, mkojo huwa na vitu vingi vya chumvichumvi (concentrated), na kiwango cha chinihuwa karibu 500ml. Lakini maji mengi yakinywewa, mkojo mwingi unatengenezeka.
  • Wakati wa jua (summer) kwa sababu ya joto na kutoa jasho nyingi kipimo cha mkojo hupungua. Wakati wa baridi (winter) hali ni tofauti – kiwango cha joto ni cha chini,hakuna kutokwa na jasho, mkojo huwa mwingi.
  • Kwa mtu anayekunywa kiwango cha maji kinachofaa, na iwapo kipimo (volume) cha mkojo anaokojoa ni chini ya 500ml lakini zaidi ya 300ml ni ishara tosha kuwa figo inahitaji uchunguzi.wa haraka.

Jumapili, 24 Julai 2016

CONTAINERS FOR SPECIMENS




Containers for Laboratory Investigations



·  Container
o   Is a carrier of specimen

 Types of containers 
·         Wax carton
o   Wax cartons are made in the laboratory using cardboard and a stapler
o   These cartons can be used only once for sputum collection in the laboratory
·         Universal bottle
  • These are glass or plastic bottles with screw caps
  • have the capacity of 25 ml
·         Plastic container with cap
  • Are made of plastic materials
  • Are containers with different capacities
·         Bijou bottle
  • These are glass or plastic bottles with screw caps
  • Have the capacity of 5ml

Significance of Containers
·         Differentiates tests
·         Stores specimens
·         Prevents infections
·         Identifies type of specimens
·         Helps to handle and transport the specimens
·         Easier to write patient information

Containers for Laboratory Investigations
Container for Stool collection
·         The following types of containers are suitable for the collection of stool specimens
o   Wax container
o   Empty clean container with a lid
o   Plastic jar specially designed for stool collection, with a spoon attached to the stopper
·         Container for Urine collection
  • Routine analysis-use clean, dry, wide-mouthed
  • Urine for culture-empty sterile universal container
·         Container for blood collection
o   Container with Red top color
§  Are used for serological and biochemistry investigations
§  Does not contain anticoagulant

o   Container with Purple/lavender top color
§  For hematological investigation such as full blood picture, Platelets count, ESR and CD4 count
§  Contains anticoagulant EDTA
o   Container with Green top color
§  Contains anticoagulant-Heparin
§  For blood sugar
·         Container for sputum collection
o   Sputum sample is collected in a plastic, wide mouthed leak proof container
o   These containers are supplied by NTLP (National TB and Leprosy programme)
·         Container for collection of pus
o   Sterile swab stick in plastic tube 
o   Transport media

Key Points 
·         Container is a carrier of specimen
o   Containers used for collecting specimens includes
§  Wax carton
§  Universal bottle
§  Plastic container with cap
§  Bijou bottle
·         Significance of Containers includes
o   Differentiates tests
o   Stores specimens
o   Prevents infections
o   Identifies type of specimens
o   Helps to handle and transport the specimens
o   Easier to write patient information

Evaluation 
·         Define a container
·         List three significance of containers
·         List three containers used for collecting specimens

References
·         Becker F.J and Silverton R.E (1985). Introduction to Medical Laboratory Technology. Sixth Ed. Butterworth London
·         Carter J, Lema O (1994) Practical laboratory manual for health centres in eastern Africa. AMREF
·         Cheesbrough M (1987). Medical Laboratory Manual for Tropical Countries. Volume 1 2nd Ed. ELBS Butterworth, Heinemann Ltd, Oxford

·         Cheesbrough M (1998). District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries. Part 1. Tropical Health Technology, Gapson Papers Ltd, NOIDA, India

Jumatano, 20 Julai 2016

TOP 10 PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES


Top 10 Public Universities

A List of the Best State-Funded Universities in the U.S.

Updated April 30, 2016.
Top Picks: Universities | Public Universities | Liberal Arts Colleges | Engineering |Business | Art | Women's | Most Selective | More Top Picks
These top public universities are state-funded schools with excellent facilities, world-renowned faculty, and powerful name recognition. Each represents a great value, especially for in-state students. I've listed the schools alphabetically rather than try to make superficial distinctions between top universities.
Compare Top Public Universities: SAT Scores | ACT Scores
Will You Get In? See if you have the grades and test scores you need to get into any of the top public universities with this free tool from Cappex: Calculate Your Chances for Top Public Universities
College of William & Mary - Photo Credit: Amy Jacobson
College of William & Mary. Photo Credit: Amy Jacobson

College of William & Mary

William & Mary typically ranks at or near the top of small public universities. The college has well-respected programs in business, law, accounting, international relations and history. Founded in 1693, the College of William & Mary is the second oldest institution of higher learning in the country. The campus is located in historic Williamsburg, Virginia, and the school educated three U.S. presidents: Thomas Jefferson, John Tyler and James Monroe. The college not only has a chapter of Phi Beta Kappa, but the honor society originated there.
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Georgie Tech Fountain - disavian / Flickr
Georgie Tech Fountain.disavian / Flickr

Georgia Tech - Georgia Institue of Technology

Located on a 400-acre urban campus in Atlanta, Georgia Tech consistently ranks as one of the best public universities in the United States. Georgia Tech's greatest strengths are in the sciences and engineering, and the school frequently appears on rankings of top engineering schools. The institute places heavy emphasis on research. Along with strong academics, the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets compete in NCAA Divsion I intercollegiate athletics as a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference.
UC Berkeley Tower - phoosh / Flickr
UC Berkeley Tower. phoosh / Flickr

UC Berkeley - University of California at Berkeley

Berkeley, a member of the University of California system, consistently ranks as the best public university in the country. It offers students a bustling and beautiful campus in the San Francisco Bay area, and it is home to one of the country's top engineering schools and top business schools. Well known for its liberal and activist personality, Berkeley provides its students with a rich and vibrant social environment. In athletics, Berkeley competes in the NCAADivision I Pacific 10 Conference.
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UCLA Royce Hall - _gene_ / flickr
UCLA Royce Hall. _gene_ / flickr

UCLA - University of California at Los Angeles

Located on 419 acres in Los Angeles' Westwood Village just 8 miles from the Pacific Ocean, UCLA sits on a piece of prime real estate. With over 4,000 teaching faculty and 25,000 undergraduates, the university provides a bustling and vibrant academic environment. UCLA is part of theUniversity of California system and stands as one of the top-ranked public schools in the country.
UC San Diego Library - kompressor / flickr
UC San Diego Library. kompressor / flickr

UCSD - University of California at San Diego

One of the "Public Ivies" and a member of the University of California system, UCSD consistently ranks in top ten list of best public universities and best engineering schools. The school is particularly strong in the sciences, social sciences and engineering. With its coastal location in La Jolla, California, and with the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, UCSD gets top marks for oceanography and the biological sciences. The school has a system of six undergraduate residential colleges modeled after Oxford and Cambridge, and each college has its own curricular focus.
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University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign - iLoveButter / Flickr
University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign.iLoveButter / Flickr

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The large flagship campus of the University of Illinois spans the twin cites of Urbana and Champaign. UIUC consistently ranks among the top public universities and top engineering schoolsin the country. The school boasts over 42,000 students and 150 different majors, and it is particularly well known for its outstanding engineering and science programs. Illinois has the largest university library in the United States outside of the Ivy League. Along with strong academics, UIUC is a member of the Big Ten Conference and fields 19 varsity teams.
University of Michigan Football Stadium - allygirl520 / Flickr
University of Michigan Football Stadium. allygirl520 / Flickr

University of Michigan at Ann Arbor

Located in Ann Arbor Michigan, the University of Michigan consistently ranks as one of the best public institutions in the country. The university has a highly talented undergraduate student body -- about 25% of admitted students had a 4.0 high school GPA. The school also boasts of impressive athletic programs as a member of the Big Ten Conference. With roughly 40,000 students and 200 undergraduate majors, the University of Michigan has strengths in a wide range of academic areas. Michigan made my list of top engineering schools and top business schools.
UNC Chapel Hill - Old Well - Seth Ilys / Wikimedia Commons
UNC Chapel Hill - Old Well. Seth Ilys / Wikimedia Commons

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

UNC Chapel Hill is one of the so-called "Public Ivy" schools. It consistently ranks in the top five among public universities, and its total costs are generally lower than the other top-ranked schools. Chapel Hill's schools of medicine, law, and business all have excellent reputations, and the Kenan-Flagler Business School made my list of top undergraduate business schools. The university's beautiful and historic campus was opened in 1795. UNC Chapel Hill also boasts excellent athletics -- the Tar Heels compete in NCAA Division I Atlantic Coast Conference. Explore the campus in this Chapel Hill photo tour.
University of Virginia - rpongsaj / flickr
University of Virginia. rpongsaj / flickr

University of Virginia at Charlottesville

Established about 200 years ago by Thomas Jefferson, the University of Virginia has one of the most beautiful and historic campuses in the U.S. The school also consistently ranks among the top public universities, and with an endowment now over $5 billion it is the wealthiest of the state schools. UVA is part of the Atlantic Coast Conference and fields numerous Division I teams. Located in Charlottesville, Virginia, the university is near Jefferson's home at Monticello. The school has strengths in a wide range of academic areas from the humanities to engineering, and the McIntire School of Commerce made my list of top undergraduate business schools.
University of Wisconsin Social Sciences - Mark Sadowski / Flickr
University of Wisconsin Social Sciences. Mark Sadowski / Flickr

University of Wisconsin at Madison

The University of Wisconsin at Madison is the flagship campus of the Wisconsin university system. The waterfront main campus occupies over 900 acres between Lake Mendota and Lake Monona. Wisconsin has a chapter of Phi Beta Kappa, and it is well respected for the research conducted in its nearly 100 research centers. The school also frequently finds itself high on lists of top party schools. In athletics, most of the Wisconsin Badger teams compete in the NCAA's Division 1-A as a member of the Big Ten Conference.
Calculate Your Chances of Being Admitted
Calculate Your Chances of Being Admitted.

Calculate Your Chances

Se​e if you have the grades and test scores you need to get into one of these top public universities with this free tool from Cappex: Calculate Your Chances of Getting In

22 More Top Public Universities

The top ten list on this page barely scratches the surface of the United States' high quality publicly funded institutions. Be sure to check out this list of 22 more great public universities.